6 COVER STORIES Geospatial Responses to Disasters: The Role of Cyberspace continued from page 5 local communities in integrating local knowledge into disaster management activities. The notion of “people as sensors”—people collecting information, often spatial information, to aid in the recovery process and posting this information on the Internet for broad dissemination outside the established traditional channels of emergency response—is yet another aspect of the intersection of disaster, place, and technology. In 2007, the National Research Council (NRC) published Successful Response Starts with a Map: Improving Geospatial Support for Disaster Management, written by the Mapping Science Committee. This report describes the state of the art of geospatial data and tools for emergency management and emphasizes the need for improvement on how this data and the tools are used. Mechanisms to increase data sharing, use of satellite images, and Internet services for data provision are among the critical needs to enhance the use of geospatial technologies. The Indonesian tsunami and Hurricane Katrina reveal important advances that occurred via the use of the Internet and GIS. For example, the disaster of the Indonesian tsunami demonstrated the ability to quickly provide remotely sensed images both before and after the event that showed the extent of damage. This occurred through partnerships between software vendors, Internet service providers, and remote-sensing companies. The failure of governmental agencies in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina resulted in numerous individuals responding via creating maps of donation and emergency aid sites. Creating data-sharing mechanisms in times of emergency response is needed; however, the report cites security as one of the main reasons for the lack of data sharing and for failure in providing data for emergency response. The recommendation by the Mapping Science Committee is to strengthen the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) of standard development and clearinghouse construction and to provide the framework for emergency management data needs and coordination. In 2009, the United Nations Foundation and Vodafone published a report, New Technologies in Emergencies and Conflicts: The Role of Information and Social Networks, that describes the new technologies and innovative uses of existing technologies to address crises. The mobile phone; the growth of broadband; and emerging telecommunications, computing, and multimedia are having a profound impact on how, when, and where people communicate. One of the observations reported is the shift to “many to many” forms of communication, such as social networking, from the traditional “one to many” type of communication in the form of radio and television. These communication changes will impact dissemination and delivery of information, as well as develop people-centered approaches focusing on local needs and emergency planning efforts. Geospatial trends are viewed as either top down, where high-resolution satellite images are used to assess infrastructure damage after disasters, or bottom up, where crowdsourcing techniques integrate cell phone broadcasting, social networking, and online maps to pinpoint local crisis conditions. When disasters have occurred, there has been an informal development of technology and communication that has self-organized during the event to provide coherent, relevant information outside the traditional information providers. The spontaneous response to disaster was particularly acute after Hurricane Katrina in the United States, coupled with Internet and mobile applications outside the traditional structure of information dissemination and emergency management. These events reinforce emergency management as a community activity that is local yet linked to national-level priorities. However, the issues of appropriate data protocols and validity and authentication of information are not insignificant. Collaboration and coordination between government agencies, humanitarian organizations, and private companies remain problematic due to conflicting missions, data security issues, and inadequate funding of emergency response technologies. There is an international need for a regulatory framework for geospatial tools and communication techniques similar to the call by the NRC for the NSDI. The integration of mapping, Global Positioning Systems, satellite imagery, and interactive geographic information systems provides important opportunities for developing and sharing information and techniques. “Technological gift giving” during disaster events has resulted in special licensing arrangements, innovative data sharing, and new applications. Mashups—the mixing of hybrid Web applications from multiple sources—combine satellite imagery with maps and geospatial data to provide local data. This activity capitalizes on researchers’ observations about the need for data collection at finer spatial scales, such as neighborhoods and subneighborhoods, to create better disaster management plans. Disasters create space for the establishment of new networks, opportunities for collaboration, and information exchange. Maps and, increasingly, satellite images are ubiquitous throughout the online disaster landscape. Global and regional consortiums provide technical advice about disaster response, training opportunities for GIS disaster applications, direct access to satellite imagery, technical help in processing digital data, and links to other information portals. Often, the latest satellite images and maps of a recent disaster can be found on these sites. For example, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) Operational Satellite Applications Programme (UNOSAT) provides the international community with geographic information and aims to universalize access to satellite imagery. The Radio and Internet for the Communication of Hydro-meteorological Information for Rural Development (RANET) project uses Internet technology to disseminate early warning information, satellite imagery, weather, and climate data to rural areas. The application of appropriate or best-fit technologies is a critical aspect of GIS and Internet applications due to factors such as bandwidth, literacy levels, and data availability. Cell phone and wireless technology are key factors in countries with inadequate wired infrastructure where interactive maps can be accessed on cell phone screens. In 2005, Paul Currion wrote about the “first responders of the wired world” in reference to the innovative uses of blogs, message boards, pinpoint maps, mashups, and Web portals by technically savvy Internet users to share local information about disasters. While emergencies vary widely in scale, severity, and duration, they are inherently local. Oftentimes, information required from a GIS for immediate emergency response is seemingly simple, not requiring complex analytic procedures but reliable and adequate data. These activities attempt to distribute appropriate, accurate information in a timely fashion and, in some instances, in real time. Multiple disasters have facilitated the formation of volunteer organizations that provide hands-on expertise to develop location-specific GIS applications. These organizations respond to disaster events by developing a list of volunteers and soliciting assistance in response to disasters. For example, GISCorps coordinates short-term, volunteer GIS services to underprivileged communities worldwide. Immediately after the Haitian earthquake, MapAction had a team on the ground to assist in relief coordination through developing maps of relief deliveries. We have learned several important lessons in novel uses of satellite imagery, GIS, and Internet technology in translating disaster information to other audiences: • The Internet enhances the ability for interactive communication of relevant information quickly and efficiently, provided people have the means to access the technology. • Different forms of media interact to fuel news stories and information dissemination. The Internet, online media, and blogs work in concert, remixing and amplifying information. • Synergistic effects from multiple new technologies (mobile phones) are enhancing access to information, as well as how information is disseminated. • Web sites, wikis, interactive maps, and blogs offer immediate assistance to a community, such as relief efforts, locations of impacted areas, potential dangers, shelter locations, donations, and ways to assist. • Different types of information can be made rapidly available that depict the geographic extent of the event, and satellite images provide a bird’seye view of the location. • People living around the world have the opportunity to learn about the human tragedy that results from a disaster, and this fosters a sense of global community.