{"id":360992,"date":"2020-09-08T06:38:02","date_gmt":"2020-09-08T13:38:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.esri.com\/about\/newsroom\/?post_type=blog&#038;p=360992"},"modified":"2022-03-29T14:51:32","modified_gmt":"2022-03-29T21:51:32","slug":"reveal-earths-changing-surface","status":"publish","type":"blog","link":"https:\/\/www.esri.com\/about\/newsroom\/blog\/reveal-earths-changing-surface","title":{"rendered":"Reveal: How Science and Technology Keep Up with Earth\u2019s Shifting Surface"},"author":6192,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"sync_status":"","episode_type":"","audio_file":"","podmotor_file_id":"","podmotor_episode_id":"","castos_file_data":"","cover_image":"","cover_image_id":"","duration":"","filesize":"","filesize_raw":"","date_recorded":"","explicit":"","block":"","itunes_episode_number":"","itunes_title":"","itunes_season_number":"","itunes_episode_type":"","_links_to":"","_links_to_target":""},"categories":[91],"tags":[471302,7162,21912,276042],"industry":[],"esri-blog-category":[478542],"esri_blog_department":[478172],"class_list":["post-360992","blog","type-blog","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-mapping","tag-geodesy","tag-measurement","tag-reveal","tag-surveying","esri-blog-category-reveal","esri_blog_department-mapping"],"acf":{"video_source":"","video_start":"","video_stop":"","short_description":"Geodesists map changes on our ever-shifting planet, recording and mapping how Earth transforms to ensure accurate measurements.","pdf":{"host_remotely":false,"file":"","file_url":""},"flexible_content":[{"acf_fc_layout":"sidebar","layout":"standard","image_reference":null,"image_reference_figure":"","spotlight_image":null,"section_title":"","spotlight_name":"","position":"Right","content":"Geodesy, the study of the size and shape of the Earth, helps keep measurements precise despite the constantly shifting surface of our planet.\r\n\r\nKey Takeaways\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Geodesists make use of GIS to record measurements and apply corrections for dramatic shifts in the Earth\u2019s surface.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Surveyors apply deformation models to adjust measurements and account for major surface changes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>GPS forever changed the way surveyors and geodesists measure the Earth.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","snippet":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content","content":"Large earthquakes struck California\u2019s Mojave Desert in July 2019 causing a major disturbance along the Garlock Fault, which intersects the infamous San Andreas Fault 50 miles northeast of Los Angeles. This movement <a href=\"https:\/\/www.latimes.com\/california\/story\/2020-07-13\/ridgecrest-quakes-big-earthquake-san-andreas-fault-study\">tripled the chances<\/a> of a major San Andreas tremblor\u2014the \u2018big one\u2019 many Southern California residents fear\u2014by summer 2021, according to a recent study.\r\n\r\nEarthquakes are dramatic reminders of a fact of life on this planet we often overlook. The Earth\u2019s tectonic plates are in constant motion, carrying the continents\u2014and all of us\u2014along for the ride.\r\n\r\nThe boundaries of these plates form faults. The San Andreas Fault is where the Pacific Plate collides with the North American Plate. When the pressure becomes too extreme\u2014an average of once every 100 years\u2014it triggers a large-scale San Andreas earthquake.\r\n<h3><strong>The Earth Never Sleeps<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWhen an earthquake hits, the physical landscape can undergo massive changes in a matter of minutes. Stationary objects\u2014such as trees, roads, buildings, and lampposts\u2014that just a moment earlier occupied one unique spot in the universe now occupy another.\r\n\r\nIn the immediate aftermath of the 2011 Tohoku-oki megaquake in Japan, land near the epicenter ended up 20 feet away from its previous position. Small positional changes occurred as far away as Europe and Russia."},{"acf_fc_layout":"image","image":361182,"image_position":"center","orientation":"horizontal","hyperlink":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content","content":"For most people who experience earthquakes, this land displacement is low on the list of concerns. For professional land surveyors, it means that, in theory, every measurement they\u2019ve previously recorded about the area is wrong.\r\n\r\nHowever, an earthquake like T\u014dhoku does not require a complete re-surveying of Japan. Instead, surveyors can apply a deformation model, based on the earthquake\u2019s parameters, and update their data in a geographic information system (GIS).\r\n\r\nCatastrophic changes aren\u2019t the only movements that vex surveyors\u2014they must also account for small \u201ccrustal\u201d changes from <a href=\"https:\/\/apl.maps.arcgis.com\/apps\/MapJournal\/index.html?appid=df5f94c0050b4075adfbba54fb13eaeb\">shifting tectonic plates<\/a>. In areas of high seismic activity, such as those impacted by the San Andreas fault, land can shift several centimeters each year.\r\n\r\nFor many surveying projects, this discrepancy is insignificant. For those that demand high accuracy, it is a problem. Surveyors can, if required, provide millimeter-level accuracy. But that skill requires a reckoning that geodesy, the science underlying surveying, has grappled with for millennia.\r\n<h3><strong>Geodesy to the Rescue<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nGeodesists study the shape of the planet, its rotation, and gravity field. The science extends back to ancient Greece, when Eratosthenes, by observing the sun and measuring the distance between two towns, computed the Earth\u2019s circumference. (His conclusion of 25,000 miles was off by just 100 miles.)\r\n\r\nFor the next 2000 years, geodesists constructed and refined various ellipsoids\u2014mathematical expressions of the planet\u2019s dimensions. As modern surveying developed, surveyors adopted the ellipsoid that provided the most accurate result in their respective parts of the world."},{"acf_fc_layout":"image","image":361192,"image_position":"center","orientation":"horizontal","hyperlink":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content","content":"Any ellipsoid, by itself, has limited utility. To produce latitude and longitude, surveyors required a coordinate reference system (CRS), or datum\u2014a virtual grid wrapped around that ellipsoid.\r\n\r\nOver the centuries, geodesists and surveyors began to tie the world together using datums of increasingly large scope. Each datum was linked to a reference point, a spot on the planet against which other points in the datum were defined. For much of the 20th Century, the reference point for North America was located on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meades_Ranch_Triangulation_Station\">a ranch in Kansas<\/a>.\r\n\r\nDevelopment of the Global Positioning System (GPS) sparked a datum revolution. Until then, all datums were <em>land-based<\/em>, each tethered to its own terrestrial reference point, forming an international patchwork of datums that never quite aligned, like a jigsaw puzzle with imperfect pieces.\r\n\r\nGPS is <em>space-based<\/em>, referenced to the Earth <em>as a whole<\/em>. The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, in Virginia, maintains the <a href=\"https:\/\/earth-info.nga.mil\/GandG\/publications\/tr8350.2\/tr8350.2-a\/Chapter%203.pdf\">GPS ellipsoid<\/a>, World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). GPS receivers <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gps.gov\/systems\/gps\/\">calculate their location<\/a> by measuring the transmission times of signals sent from the GPS satellite constellation, using a CRS that is truly international. With the right equipment, GPS receivers can achieve millimeter accuracy.\r\n\r\nWith the onset of GPS, scientists could, for the first time, observe and measure tectonic plate movement. In 2003, a consortium of research institutions established the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unavco.org\/projects\/past-projects\/pbo\/pbo.html\">Plate Boundary Observatory<\/a>, a network of GPS receivers arrayed across the western United States, to study Earth deformation caused by the motion of the North American and Pacific plates.\r\n<h3><strong>A Conundrum for Surveyors<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nNaturally, surveyors also benefitted from the precision of GPS. But for them, plate movement presented a problem. The old datums were land-based, and so are humans. When the plates move, people move with them, so from that perspective, a land-based datum remains stable and <em>static<\/em>.\r\n\r\nBecause the GPS datum is space-based, it is <em>dynamic<\/em>. From an Earth-bound moving-plate perspective, coordinate locations represent change over time. For any survey-dependent project that also spans time, this dynamism creates an issue."},{"acf_fc_layout":"image","image":361172,"image_position":"center","orientation":"horizontal","hyperlink":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content","content":"Imagine a bridge project. With the blueprint as a guide, surveyors record coordinates located on both riverbanks. Construction begins on the left bank, moving out into the water, but funding runs out before any work begins on the right bank.\r\n\r\nFive years later, construction begins on the right bank, based on the previously surveyed coordinates. As construction crews build further out over the river, they discover the two sides do not properly connect in the middle. The problem: plate motion over the five-year period compromised the accuracy of the GPS-guided coordinates.\r\n\r\nTo avoid these situations, the GPS datum is divided into \u201cepochs,\u201d units of time that correct for plate movement. Surveyors often \u201cgo back in time.\u201d If they are tasked with, say, marking out coordinates for new sewer grates, they adjust current GPS-based measurements to reflect the epoch when the city first used GPS to orient its sewer system.\r\n<h3><strong>The Next Step<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nAlthough surveyors can now update data with deformation models, they perform these calculations separately, and then reimport data into GIS. The next step is to integrate these calculations in the GIS environment.\r\n\r\nGeodesists and surveyors are <a href=\"http:\/\/unggrf.org\">collaborating on standards<\/a> to make integration possible. This will allow surveyors to account for sudden changes caused by earthquakes and some human processes, such as large mining projects\u2014and for shifts attributed to the steady march of tectonic plates.\r\n\r\nKevin M. Kelly, a geodesist leading the standardization efforts, has noted the enthusiasm surveyors have shown for the project. The initial organizing effort attracted over 200 people from around the world.\r\n\r\n\u201cTo have this many people on our first call, for something as esoteric as a deformation model for GIS and surveying, is unprecedented,\u201d he said recently. \u201cIn the end, they\u2019ll have a standard that tells the community how to make use of a model for their area. And if an earthquake happens, they\u2019ll just encode it, ingest it, and apply it.\u201d"},{"acf_fc_layout":"sidebar","layout":"standard","image_reference":null,"image_reference_figure":"","spotlight_image":null,"section_title":"","spotlight_name":"","position":"Center","content":"<h2><strong>Achieving New Height Accuracy<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nAccurate surveying requires a datum, and every datum needs an ellipsoid\u2014a mathematical description of the size and shape of the Earth. Prior to the development of GPS, which uses an international datum fixed to the center of the Earth, datums were regional.\r\n\r\nThe North American Datum (NAD) began to take shape in the early 20<sup>th<\/sup> Century, based on an ellipsoid constructed by the British geodesist Alexander Ross Clarke. NAD defined all latitudes and longitudes in the continental United States\u2014and later the North American continent\u2014by a control point at the <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.amerisurv.com\/PDF\/TheAmericanSurveyor_Penry-MeadesRanch_June2015.pdf\">Meades Ranch<\/a> in Kansas, some 240 miles west of Kansas City, chosen because it was near the geographical center of the landmass.\r\n\r\nRefinement of NAD culminated with the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Since then, NAD 83 has undergone periodic adjustments to improve accuracy and align more closely with the GPS datum. Even as surveying based on the GPS datum has become more routine, surveyors continue to use NAD 83 for projects that benefit from the datum\u2019s precise tailoring to the contours of this part of the world.\r\n\r\nAfter more than a century, NAD may finally be reaching the end of its useful lifespan. In 2022, the National Geodetic Survey (NGS), a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration with roots in Thomas Jefferson\u2019s presidency, will introduce a new continental datum. In lieu of a terrestrial control point like Meades Ranch, the new datum will draw from GPS-based observations.\r\n\r\nNAD is a two-dimensional datum, a way to define latitude and longitude. Datums that define the precise parameters of vertical measurements are just as important for the surveying profession. The new 2022 datum will have a vertical component that will supplant the previous standard, the North American Vertical Datum of 1988.\r\n\r\nThe challenge in developing vertical datums has always been the way the Earth\u2019s gravity field\u2014the \u201cpull\u201d gravity exerts\u2014varies slightly across the planet. For the vertical component of the 2022 datum, NGS has collected gravity data over the past 15 years for its <a href=\"https:\/\/geodesy.noaa.gov\/GRAV-D\/\">Gravity for the Redefinition of the Vertical Datum project (GRAV-D)<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe GRAV-D model of the planet, called a geoid, will be a component of GPS height-based measurements, accurate to within two centimeters. NGS estimates the improved vertical accuracy will be worth $4.8 billion in \u201csocioeconomic benefits,\u201d including improved floodplain maps and coastal management.","snippet":""}],"references":null},"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v25.9 (Yoast SEO v25.9) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>How Science and Technology Keep Up with Earth&#039;s Changing Surface<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Geodesists map our ever-shifting planet, recording and mapping Earth&#039;s changing surface to ensure accurate measurements.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.esri.com\/about\/newsroom\/blog\/reveal-earths-changing-surface\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Reveal: 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